Key Concept 3.2: Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions
State formation in this era demonstrated remarkable continuity, innovation, and diversity in various regions. In Afro-Eurasia, some states attempted, with differing degrees of success, to preserve or revive imperial structures, while smaller, less centralized states continued to develop. The expansion of Islam introduced a new concept — the Caliphate — to Afro-Eurasian statecraft. Pastoral peoples in Eurasia built powerful and distinctive empires that integrated people and institutions from both the pastoral and agrarian worlds. In the Americas, powerful states developed in both Mesoamerica and the Andean region.
I. Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged.
A. Following the collapse of empires, most reconstituted governments, including the Byzantine Empire and the Chinese dynasties — Sui, Tang, and Song — combined traditional sources of power and legitimacy with innovations better suited to the current circumstances.
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Examples of traditional sources of power and legitimacy:
Examples of innovations:
For more information on Byzantium and its Empire, and how changes in religion in the region influenced traditions and governments, visit Metropolitan Museum of Arts: Byzantium (ca. 330-1453) |
B. In some places, new forms of governance emerged, including those developed in various Islamic states, the Mongol Khanates, city-states, and decentralized government (feudalism) in Europe and Japan.
Examples of Islamic states:
Islamic Caliphate
1. The Islamic Caliphate was the leader of the Islamic Community who governed under the Sharia, or set of Islamic Rules. The Caliphs were supposed to be Imams, men chosen by God. All were supposed to be disciples of God as well. The Caliphs were the leaders of the community. 2. The first Caliph was Abu Bakr, and he was followed by three other Caliphs. Unfortunately, after the first four, rivals began to try to take the Caliphate which would lead to battles over whom had the Caliphate. The Caliphate would go through dynasties such as the Umayyads, Abbasids, and the Ottoman dynasties. At one point or another all of these Empires claimed that they had the Caliphate.
Click here for a Table of Caliphs, (632- 861) from course readings for Professor Kenneth Ward, Tulane University.
3. These Empires all collapsed because of corruption within the Caliphate. The third Caliph Uthman was thought to have ruled the most like a King, and controversy then occurred as to what the proper way to elect a Caliphate was. It was this controversy that would lead to the collapse of many different Empires within the Islamic community.
4. As the map shows, the Islamic Caliphate expanded as Islam expanded. With more debate on who the Caliph should be, people from new territories attempted to claim it, meaning when one person got the Caliph, they now were in charge of the Islamic world.
5. The Islamic Caliphate was in charge of everything in Islamic Society. They determined the rights of minorities, the religious freedom people within the region, the treatment of Christians and Jews, as well as the economy. There is a great short lecture by Sheikh Anwar al-Awlaki who discusses what the Caliphate entailed, what it decided and how it shaped the Islamic World.
Examples of city-states:
Examples of such synthesis by states:
D. In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: Networks of city-states flourished in the Maya region and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the Mexica ("Aztecs") and Inca.
1. The Islamic Caliphate was the leader of the Islamic Community who governed under the Sharia, or set of Islamic Rules. The Caliphs were supposed to be Imams, men chosen by God. All were supposed to be disciples of God as well. The Caliphs were the leaders of the community. 2. The first Caliph was Abu Bakr, and he was followed by three other Caliphs. Unfortunately, after the first four, rivals began to try to take the Caliphate which would lead to battles over whom had the Caliphate. The Caliphate would go through dynasties such as the Umayyads, Abbasids, and the Ottoman dynasties. At one point or another all of these Empires claimed that they had the Caliphate.
Click here for a Table of Caliphs, (632- 861) from course readings for Professor Kenneth Ward, Tulane University.
3. These Empires all collapsed because of corruption within the Caliphate. The third Caliph Uthman was thought to have ruled the most like a King, and controversy then occurred as to what the proper way to elect a Caliphate was. It was this controversy that would lead to the collapse of many different Empires within the Islamic community.
4. As the map shows, the Islamic Caliphate expanded as Islam expanded. With more debate on who the Caliph should be, people from new territories attempted to claim it, meaning when one person got the Caliph, they now were in charge of the Islamic world.
5. The Islamic Caliphate was in charge of everything in Islamic Society. They determined the rights of minorities, the religious freedom people within the region, the treatment of Christians and Jews, as well as the economy. There is a great short lecture by Sheikh Anwar al-Awlaki who discusses what the Caliphate entailed, what it decided and how it shaped the Islamic World.
Examples of city-states:
- In the Italian peninsula
- In East Africa
- In Southeast Asia
- In the Americas
Examples of such synthesis by states:
- Persian traditions that influenced Islamic states
- Chinese traditions that influenced states in Japan
D. In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: Networks of city-states flourished in the Maya region and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the Mexica ("Aztecs") and Inca.
II. Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers:
Examples of technological and cultural transfers:
1. Al Andalus- From this region in the Islamic Empire came immigrants who were called Mozarb immigrants. They began migrating to Spain in which they translate Arabic works, and shared new technologies with each other.
2. The Mozarabs brought ideas of architecture and agriculture, which at first was viewed with skepticism by Europe. But after a series of defeats during the Crusades, Europe took Islamic technological advances more seriously, and began practicing them. For more information on these various inter-regional contacts visit Contact.
As Europe was considered to be technologically behind the Middle East during the Crusades, the positive effect made was only on Europe. To read more about the events and transferal effects from the Crusades, see The Crusades
- Between Tang China and the Abbasids
- Across the Mongol empires
- During the Crusades
- During the maritime activity of Ming Admiral Zheng He
1. Al Andalus- From this region in the Islamic Empire came immigrants who were called Mozarb immigrants. They began migrating to Spain in which they translate Arabic works, and shared new technologies with each other.
2. The Mozarabs brought ideas of architecture and agriculture, which at first was viewed with skepticism by Europe. But after a series of defeats during the Crusades, Europe took Islamic technological advances more seriously, and began practicing them. For more information on these various inter-regional contacts visit Contact.
As Europe was considered to be technologically behind the Middle East during the Crusades, the positive effect made was only on Europe. To read more about the events and transferal effects from the Crusades, see The Crusades
